Impact of Technology on an Organization

Introduction Technology continues to play a pivotal part in the modern business world. Technological advancement steadily continues to become an integral part of the operations any company. Companies continue to adopt new technologies in enhancing their performance. The impacts of these technological adoptions, however, continue to be felt in numerous aspects of the company.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Impact of Technology on an Organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The impacts form an internal and external influence to the business of the company. It becomes necessary to analyze the internal and external impacts of any technological adaptation in order to provide room for improvement. This analysis can also enable informed decision making by the board of a company. The Organization The coca-cola company is a multinational company supplying soft drink across globally. The company’s headqua rters lie in Atlanta, Georgia in the United States of America. Over the years, the company continues to create leadership in the manufacturing of non-alcoholic beverages globally. Though it began in 1886 with a single brand of soft drink, that situation has changed over the years. The company run over 500 globally recognized brands across the world. The company has effectively utilized franchise marketing, across the globe, to reach out to its customers in rural settings within third world countries (Dent, 2011). As a global leader within the industry, it employs the use of various technologies for maximizing sales across the world. Listing of the company in the New York stock exchange means that it operates as a limited liability company. The company defines its mission as striving to refresh the world. This, the company seeks to achieve through creating value and making a difference. The company continues to live up to its mission globally. The number of servings delivered daily i s estimated at 1.7 billion across over 200 countries. The company utilizes franchised distribution for the distribution of its products worldwide. The company has employed this structure of distributing since 1889. The distributors get an allocation of the territory where they supply coca-cola products. This structure continues to ease the distribution burden on the company as the subcontracted organizations manage the distribution logistics. The company only distributes its products up to the bottlers’ level. The rest of the distribution channel is left to subcontracted companies and individuals. The company contains numerous subsidiaries running the operations of coca-cola in various countries.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The chairman of the company also acts at the chief executive for the company. The headquarters of the company are in Atlanta. All the com pany operations run from that central place. The rest of the services are controlled through subsidiaries of coca-cola. Many of these subsidiaries operate as independent companies although few fall under the ownership of coca-cola. From the inception up to now, the company continues to adopt new technologies in delivering services and products. These technologies come in all operations of the company, from production to distribution. One of the notable technological advancement by coca-cola continues to be the use of vending machines. The impact of these machines on the organization cannot be ignored. The machines continue to play a crucial role in the operations of the coca-cola company. History of the vending machine A vending machine can be described as any machine dispensing items, to customers, automatically upon inserting currency. These machines had been in use since the 19th century when they were first employed commercially. The growing demand for coca-cola products can be attributed to the integration of the vending machines into the selling system of the company. With a global rise in the demand for products, especially in the populated areas, there came a need for an invention to cater for those numbers. The demand for coca-cola products in office blocks seemed to be rising as days progressed. The mode of selling using sales men could not efficiently cater for the desires of the growing number of customers. This led to the use of automated machines to dispense products to customers. The machines had been used in other industries in dispensing products. Post offices extensively utilized these machines in the sale of postage stamps. Introduction of these machines can be traced to the years after the First World War. Before this time, the company used service packs as a way of catering to large numbers of people in highly populated place. The vending machines allow for a reduced number of employees while supplying the products to a wide range of peopl e (Philippine de T’Serclaes, 2007). The technology vending machines were installed in the regions where there was a substantial demand for the products. The employees of coca-cola would only need to check that the levels of the products do not drop. The company first installed the machines in the American region. They were initially installed to enable the company sell to many people and not for convenience. The burden on the employees conducting selling activities was also eased with the adoption of the vending machines. The technology continued to be distributed to other regions of the world following the same criterion of installation. Other competing companies in the industry accelerated the trend. It became common for each soft drinks beverage company to provide an automated vending machine at various selling points across the world.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Impact of Technology on an Organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Since the setting in of competition for technology, companies install their vending machines in proximity to competitors. This continues to help companies within the beverage industry achieve improved sales in new regions. In the modern times, these machines are placed in every soft drink outlet in leading cities of the world. The maturity of this technology came with the recognition and the extensive use of technology in almost all industries. In the food industry, the technology of vending machines continues to be used even in the portioning of food. Better control can be achieved when machines are utilized as opposed to the employment of human capital. The technology has allowed for a full time supply of soft drinks in places where this was not possible. The acceptance of this technology by many countries played a significant role in the maturity of the technology. This has seen the machines offering selective services. The soft drink ve nding machines of the earlier days could only sell a specified brand of drink. The modern machines offer a variety of up to five different brands of soft drinks. The technological advancement has also increased the efficiency of the machines. Privately owned machines can sell not only different brands, but also brands from different companies. Independent machine companies continue to construct machines targeting other establishments like restaurants. The restaurants posses the rights to the machines and can sell a mixture of hot and cold drinks from a single dispensing machine. Owing to numerous regulations set in the 21st century, the technology of vending machines continues to advance in conformity to standards. Impact of vending machine on the organization The adoption of this technology continues to produce immense impact on the operations of the coca-cola company. The global marketing business receives a surmountable boost from the use of vending machines. The various aspects of the company showing significant impacts are discussed below. Customers The company established itself as a global leader in the manufacturing of non-alcoholic soft drinks long ago. Maintaining this position continues to be essential for the company. The use of this technology has impacted the way customers purchase coca-cola products. The vending machines continue to provide refreshments to customers around the globe in a similar manner.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Customers can access similar quality of drinks whenever they travel to across the entire world. The availability of these products continues to provide the desired satisfaction on the customers. The technology is unified in all countries it is used. This provides customers with a service they can identify from any country. With differing technological advancements around the globe, the use of standard vending machines continues to standardize the technology in different nations. This allows customers from third world countries, to use the machines in developed nations. Employees The coca-cola company contains an estimated 140,000 employee base in all countries where it operates (The Coca-Cola Company, 2011). The company has employed this technology across all regions equally. The employees continue to reap the benefits of the technology. To the employees, the technology allows them to conduct a lot of sales under minimum effort. An employee can singlehandedly sell to an entire offic e block without getting exhausted. The main chores involve replenishing the drinks and other disposable materials in the machine. This makes the selling aspect for the employees extremely easy. The area of coverage by an individual also increases through utilizing this technology. The general output of employees continues to increase as an impact of the adoption of the vending machine technology. The technology has helped create numerous jobs not related to the manufacturing of soft drinks. The company has integrated the services of engineers and programmers to operate the machines. The programmers’ work in the machines includes, adjusting prices when a change occurs. They also work to ensure the prices are maintained globally as the exchange rates for currencies keep on changing. Society The vending machines have also had an impact on society. The society has been transformed immensely through the use of vending machines. The machines have eliminated the salesmen who used to be positioned at strategic points selling coca-cola products. The crowding along the streets of cities across the world caused by these salesmen continues to reduce with the installation of vending machines. Cities continue to improve on the appearance as advertisements can be run on the machines. The machines occupy small spaces and can, therefore, be linked to the de-congesting of pedestrian footpaths in cities. The industry The machines have transformed how selling is conducted in the industry. The use of credit cards in the 21st century continues to be extensively utilized in many industries. Through these machines, the industry has adopted the use of credit cards in the purchase of soft drinks. Some machines have the capability to accept credit card payments for drinks dispensed. This has changed the way purchasing of soft drinks is conducted. The industry continues to experience new technological advancements through the vending machines. The industry has been able to operate many points of sale run directly by the company. While franchising is common as a mode of selling, it cuts the profits a company receives. Elimination of the franchising aspect has increased the level of profits realized by the companies in the industry. The vending machines also help the industry achieve product standardization in terms of packaging (Peter Martin, 2010). Since the machines can only accept cans of a certain size, the companies manufacture that size of cans. This standardization makes purchasing decisions easy to make for customers products based on other considerations apart from appearance. The machines can also be said to limit the design creativity for products. When a company wants to change its packaging design, the vending machine has to be changed. To avoid the expenses that may be incurred, the companies within the industry continue to restrict themselves to old packaging designs. Ramifications of the technology The company continues to encounter numerous c omplications relating to the application of the vending machine technology. Many of the issues of concern for the company are based on the environment and climate change. The material used in the packaging of products available in the machines continues to pollute the environment. Most of the products contained in the vending machines are packaged in plastic of metal. Since a majority of the people who purchase from the machines are on transit, this encourages littering with the packets. The disposal of the packaging material has been an issue of concern within the company. Though the company has adopted the use of recyclable materials, the challenge to curb littering continues to exist. These machines have been faulted as the origin a sizeable percentage of litter found on major cities’ streets. The vending machines have been identified as causing a considerable level of contribution towards gas emission. The United Nations summit on climate change in Copenhagen came up with a solution to reduce greenhouse gas effects. The company and its partners also agreed to use hydro fluorocarbon-free vending machines and coolers by 2015 (The Coca-Cola Company, 2011). This aims at ensuring the company plays a leading role in the conservation of the environment. The challenge to construct vending machines complying with the set rules has been identified by the company as its principal role going into the future. The company continues to urge other companies in the soft drink industry to follow suit in the adoption of hydro fluorocarbon-free coolers and vending machines. Recommendations The adoption of this technology has tremendously improved the operations of the coca-cola company. There can be several recommendations that the company can adopt to deal with the challenges facing the technology. The company should seek to partner with the other players in the industry to come up with environmentally friendly vending machines. This would reduce the costs incurred by the company in the construction and installation of such machines. While reducing costs, this partnership would also allow exchange of technology between the various employees for the companies. The company should seek to work in close relationship with the local authorities within areas where the vending machines are installed. This partnership with the local authorities would enable the company to come up with an innovative way of controlling littering. This would play a crucial role in improving the image of the company in association with clean environments. The company can also sponsor garbage collection companies collecting garbage in areas where littering from coca-cola products seems extensive. The company can be able to play a part in the cleaning of the environment through such a project. The company would be well placed using machines accepting only credit cards and no cash. As the company heads into the future, such machines would eliminate the problem of cash collectio n. Numerous incidents have been reported of employees being attacked after collecting money from machines. This would also reduce the losses incurred by the company when a machine is attacked. Losses in such scenarios would only be of the unsold drinks. In the current system, successful burglary of a machine results in the loss of the unsold drinks and the sales. Using electronic payments, the company can secure the sales in the event of a burglary act. Such machines can also ensure profitability as the pricing can be set using a single currency. This would ease the problem of converting sales affected by fluctuating rates of different currencies across the world. The company should seek to partner with distributors to provide security in machines located within an area allocated to the distributor. This shall immensely improve reduce cases of burglary of the machines. The machines can also be partly owned by the distributors to ensure the distribution of the risk between the compan y and the distributor. This shall reduce the amount of losses incurred on the company as parts shall be transferred to the distributor. Partnering with distributors can also ensure that the company locates the machines in convenient, strategic locations. The company can utilize the distributor knowledge of the area to identify the strategic positions to place the machines. Conclusion The coca cola company has adopted the use of vending machines to ease the supply of their products. The company continues to advance the technology by improving the machine to comply with modern technology (Peter Martin, 2010). The impacts of the machines on the company have both been negative and positive. With significant advancements and rectifications on the existing machines, the company can improve the profitability of the venture significantly. This would in turn increase the total returns for the company. References Dent, J. (2011). Distribution Channels: Understanding and Managing Channels to M arket (2nd Ed.). London: Kogan Page ltd. Peter Martin, G. H. (2010). Automation Made Easy: Everything You Wanted to Know about Automation and need to ask. New York: International Society of Automation. Philippine de T’Serclaes, N. J. (2007). Mind the gap: quantifying principal-agent problems in energy efficiency. Paris: International Enegy Agency. The Coca-Cola Company. (2011). Goals Performance. Web. 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Leadership Must Be Empowerment To Empower Its Teams Management Essay

Leadership Must Be Empowerment To Empower Its Teams Management Essay Goleman (1998) argued that during the last decade interpersonal skills have focused on effective leadership. Where the leaders controlled, planned and inspected the organizations operation, in recent more service oriented industries, leaderships responsibilities include motivate employees, promote positive attitudes in workplace, and make a sense of participation among employees (Hogan et al., 1994). Most researchers analyze leadership effectiveness regarding to the result of the leaders performance for employees and companys stakeholders, but the consequence variables of each researchers have been different from the others. The principals of these variables are depend on how immediate they are and whether they have subjective or objective measures. These consequences which are negatively correlated, are very difficult because of the complex trade-offs among them. In order to analyze the effectiveness of leadership many criteria should be taken in to the account to handle these complexities and variation between stakeholders preferences (Yuki, 1998). Researchers have stressed that the relationship between managers and employees has an important role in effective leadership. Qualified relationship and open interaction motivate and empower employees (Boyd and Taylor, 1998; Brower, Schoorman, and Tan, 2000). Drinks (1995) and Nonaka (1988) believed that the type of leaders interaction may lead them to take advantage from their difference and learn from each other. Ensley et al. (2003) argued that conventional view of a single leadership is based on the concept that leadership is a specialized role that cannot be shared with group. This perspective is stood for more hierarchical leadership in which the leaders supervise and control all activities. In the other hand, in shared leadership all members of the team are empowered to share the tasks and responsibilities of leadership. Yuki (1998, p.3) who view leadership as shared process cited that important decisions about what to do and how to do it are made through the use of an interac tive process that involves many different people who influence each other, not by a single person. Managers have different relationships with their employees and as Boyd and Taylor (1998) argued the quality of these relations may have influence on their success. When they improve the quality of their relationship, employees can be more productive on their task and more encouraged to contribute in organizational activities. Argyris and Schon (1978, 1996) have claimed that supportive interaction is the basis of effective leadership. Such interaction can be a strong motivation for organizational learning (Drinks, 1995; Nonakd, 1998). Bandura (1974) emphasized that successful leaders have capacity to motivate, encourage and empower their employees. Empowerment improves employees task innovation and continuation. Empowered employees make more contributions, they accept more difficult situations, and perform more confidently. They make more effort on their given task. According to Hofstede (2001) in organizations, such as any other social units, it may be found some inequality of employees capacities and powers, or unequal distribution of power over the employees. Cotta (1976) believes that power inequality is necessary in organization, and Hofstede (2001) claimed that the distribution of power in most organizations is formed in hierarchies, and the foundation of these hierarchies is the relationship between the managers and employees. Power distance is a measure of the interpersonal power or influence (P.83) between managers and employees. The acceptance and supporting of power distance by social environment is strongly related to the national culture. The culture determines the level of correlation among managers and employees. He expressed that the effect of employees participation on the outcome variables of organizational contribution, job satisfaction and efficacy was altered by particular level of power distance. Employee empowerment or participative decision making is not a simple or new concept of management. More than 50 years of research has approved that employee contribution is a complex management tool, that if apply properly, it can improve the performance, productivity and job satisfaction (Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Cohen, Chang and Ledford (1997) argued that employee must be engaged if they comprehend the necessity of creativity and if they are interested in changing their behaviors in work in improved way. He believes that the most significant concept of organizational effectiveness and positive employee perceptions is the employees involvement. One type of employees involvement in workplace is their participation in decision making (PDM). Nykodym, Simonetti and Welling (1994) have presented four areas for employees participation. The first area is goal setting. Employees can participate in setting up a goal for their task, planning a job and the appropriate time for job execution. In the second area employees can contribute in making choice between alternative series of tasks such as: working hours, placement of supplies or options among alternatives to perform an ordinary task. Next, employees can participate in problems solving that include clarifying the subject and determining the alternative series of activities. Finally, participation may include organizational changes, such as setting company policies that may involve hiring, layoffs, profit sharing or investments. Companies can take part in any or all of these areas in any time. The first three methods of participation can be used for all areas of contribution. Employees can participate individually to make decision and determine their own target, or they may get together with a manager to make decision making team. All employees may take part in decision making group with their coworkers or managers. This participation may be formal as in quality circle or informal as a group of employees declaring their opinions to gain the general agreement. Employees contribution in decision making can be directly or indirectly through a representative elected to express the groups ideas. There are some conditions that influence the success of participative leadership, and if these conditions do not manage properly, the efforts for participative management will fail. One of the most important set of these conditions is include the values, attitudes and expectations of an organizations employees. If employees do not want to take part in decision making, any attempt to force them would fail. For successful participation an organization must have a corporate culture that express the participative leadership. Another condition is the design of current task that must be done. If the workers task depends on each other to be complete, it can encourage the independent individual participation. If employees do not trust their managers, the participation in group decision making of employees and managers may not be successful. The last set of conditions is related to the environment. According to the rapidly changing technology, governmental laws, and strong competition, employ ees participation in decision making cannot be effective unless the members have the essential technical skills. These groups must also be capable to work with each other effectively in order to make a proper decision (Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Yuki (1998) believes that shared leadership is expected to occur self-managed teams, because of the employees are independent in developing group processes. In self-managed teams employees have more authority and responsibility to make decisions which related to their tasks (Katzenbach Smith, 1993; S.G Cohen, 1991). Self-managed teams are able to make decisions, determine goals, assign work, set schedule, and so on (Yuki, 1998). However the necessity of leadership in not questioning as the team is self-managed. Barry (1991) stressed that the role of leadership in self-managed teams is more important than traditional teams. He declared that in addition to needing task-based leadership such as project definition, scheduling, and resource gathering; self-managed teams require leadership around group development processes (developing cohesiveness, establishing effective communication patterns, and so forth) (p.32). Braford (1976) suggested that the teams members with shared leadership a re more satisfied with their teams, and Katzenbach and Smith (1993) claimed that teams involved in shared leadership are more effective and productive in regard to performance. In addition Perry, Pearce and Sims (1999) argued that shared leadership improves the interpretation of teams requirements. Recently many researchers have become interested in the concept of self-managed group (Stewart and Manz,1995; Cohen and Ledford, 1994; Mohrman et al., 1995; Manz, 1986, 1992; Manz and Sims, 1980,1990). According to the idea of socio-technical systems developed by Emery and Trist (1969), during the recent years, the self-managed work groups are used as a form of work system, specifically as pressures of high educated workforce for more responsibility and empowerment through group based shared management are exerted on organizations (Pearce and Manz, 2005). Also, there is another pressure that applied for organization to become more responsive to the recent competitive environment and global economy (Wriston, 1991; Druskat and Wheeler, 2003). Self-managed teams are independent to make important decision that related to their team processes (Katzenbach Smith, 1993; S.G. Cohen, 1991; Yuki, 1998). Murry et al. (2002) emphasized that leadership is a key in team process, without leadership team members may not be able to identify with team goals. Self-managed teams as Barry (1991) argued need more leadership than traditional teams in both task-related and team development problems. There are some attributes for self-managed work teams. Under the Wall and Clegg (1986) presentation, self-managed team build of a small group of individuals who are responsible for making the unit of task, executing a variety of works and using various skills that the group possesses. Job feedback is important for work team so the difference from goal achievement can be supervised by group member in specified task area boundary. Several case studies proved the advantages of the implementation of self-managed work teams such as increased employee satisfaction, heightened socialization in the work place, increased autonomy, opportunity to learn new skills, and some other benefits include reduced absenteeism and increased performance and motivation (Cohen and Ledford, 1994; Wall and Clegg, 1986; Pearce and Ravlin, 1987). However some researchers believes that self-managed work teams have some disadvantages in actual work (Versepey, 1990; Mohrman et al., 1995). Some case study in the USA has demonstrated that one of the most important factors in self-managed work teams failure is the reluctance of the manager to transfer the power and control to the team member (Hackman, 1989; Manz and Sims, 1987). So the role of leadership in self-managed work teams is critical. Elloy (n.d.) argued that the leadership in self-managed work team has an important role that has received little attention during past years for they often they supposed that role of external leader is redundant. There are few researches on external leader and its influence on groups operations. The fundamental opinion of self-managed work teams declares that the group members have control over their work environment and responsibility for all their duties in the team. However, research by Manz and Sims (1984, 1986, 1987, and 1990) revealed that leadership exit from traditional form of supervision and control to highly facilitative form of management, less direct but necessary for the productivity and effectiveness of the group. Many authors cited Kanter (1979) as the source of knowledge about the efficacy of employee empowerment. Kanter (1979) believes that shared management and empowered employee can increase the organizational power. The power of the leader in such situation not only reduces but also may enhance especially if the organization performs better. He also mentioned that employees, who are equipped with tools, information, and support, can make better decision. Bowen and Lawler (1995) declared that empowerment lead to more satisfied customers and employees. They also provided additional evidence, considerable research unpracticed such as gain sharing, communication programs, work teams, job enrichment, skill based pay, and so on, has shown the results of these practices are consistence and positive (p.75). Randolph (1995) indicates that employee empowerment can is improved trust in the organization. In such organization employee respond positively and they will set challenging goals which when they achieve those goals they will define the goals at higher level. In the other hand managing participation does not come without potential problems in the case of initiation, structure and management, choice of issue, team work, and evaluation. When organizations begin the participation program, the managements who are at higher level direct employees to contribute in establishing task forces and teams. In addition, managers who are handled to accomplish this activity will be assessed on the success of their teams. Another problem of participation is how the organization declares the program to the employees. Managers sometime present contribution in decision-making as a luxury rather than a result oriented tool. Furthermore, if management explains clearly what they want to obtain from concept of participation, employees can accept it more rapidly. The next problem is concern with employees who are involved in participation practices. If participation depends on volunteers, it is not representative, if it does not; it is compelling (Nykodym, Simone tti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Fox (1998) believes the most important problem in empowerment program as that may affect profitability of the organization is managements fear of letting employees make decisions. Even Kanter (1979) who is cited as providing evidence of the effectiveness of empowerment indicates: One might wonder why more organizations do not adopt such empowering strategies. These are standard answers, that giving up control is threatening to people who have fought for every shred of it; that managers fear losing their own place and special privileges in the system, and so on forth. But I would also pot skepticism about employee abilities high on the list. (p.74) In addition, Nykodym et al. (1994) mentioned that some problems in participations are related to the structure and management. An effective empowerment needs an obvious structure. It is essential to establish all basis rules and limitation boundaries from the beginning of the program. In the other word, empowerment program requires an effective leader who can motivate the employee and set constraints. Another problem with structure and management is that managers must engage to arrange activities, support employees and reconsider the consequences. A manager cannot assign the tasks to a team without monitoring them. They must also find and manage the time needed for participation. Middle managers often oppose to employee empowerment as they think that the program will remove their power, which Blanchard and Bowles (1998) called it hazing theory of management. He believes that managers must modify the control over the employees. The reason that initiation programs and hazing are still a part of fraternal companies is that the employees want the chance to act as was acted to them. These changes are performed through training. Managers must understand that they still have a position even the authority being shared with employees. Their new role includes mentoring, coaching, and facilitating. Proper training improves managers skill of coaching and mentoring, because empower employee are often leaded in to self-managing teams need someone to facilitate their discussion until their skills are improved. This facilitating is the role of manager in self-managed team. Many managers need training in order to increase their capacity for facilitating discussions (Fox, 1998 ). Next dilemma that Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling (1994) referred is the issue of choice that is concerned which issue is included in participative decision making. Researchers have demonstrated that employees prefer to take part in problems that are related to their primary job operation, or their quotidian problems. But it is important not to make presumption about what problems are most significant to employees, they should be asked. As the participation has passed its experimental stage, employees may request compensation or recognition for their time and ideas. Employees must feel that they profit from participation in the effectiveness of the company. Bowen and Lawler (1992) note some management objections such as: higher required investment in selection and training, greater labor costs, incompatible service deliveries which are resulted by these changes. Other management objections mentioned by Conger and Kanungo (1988) are empowerment may lead to overconfidence and misjudgment on the followers. Appropriate training may defeat some of these objections, but not all of them. However, Fox (1998) believes that the advantage of employee empowerment exceed the disadvantages. In the other hand, employees are often opposed to empowerment program. Aeppel (1997) argued that one of the objections by Eaton employees is the responsibility of the group for each employee. He believes that when everyone mentoring everyone else it seems that having a hundred bosses. Another employee complaint that declared by Fox (1998), is that they dont want extra task than their ordinary responsibilities. He considers that employee with such objection is not motivated and he/she is not aware of the benefit of his/her task for the organization. Eurotec Company is a subsidiary of the Schott Group which is a large German glass manufacturer. According to the rapid production expansion, the company faced a number of problems, and in order to moderate these issues, the company decided to implement empowerment program. The references revealed the successful use of empowered autonomous work team to remove the problems (Sykes et al., 1997). As argued in the article, the staffs are now motivated to come along with challenges. Employees are trained to increase their technical and communication skills and they feel more involved. In conclusion, although the implementation empowerment is the biggest challenge of any organization in terms of its initiation, structure, and evaluation and so on, it is profitable for team progress, because there are more leaders to mentor teams performance, and employees motivate each other. In such environment employees are more satisfied about their job and as a result the productivity, performance and task innovation will be improved. For achieving these goals, managers have a key role to lead the organizations effectively and motivate employees to participate in decision making.

The Neurobiology of Parkinsons Disease Essay -- Biology Essays Resear

The Neurobiology of Parkinson's Disease In neuroscience it is assumed that the central nervous system governs and defines all aspects of behavior (Grobstein, 1998). Therefore, the brain, the hub of the central nervous system, is responsible for integrating all sensory and motor patterning. To understand the mechanisms of neurobiology it is often useful to observe the nervous system at the level of the neuron. Integration and communication between neurons is facilitated by neurotransmitters, chemicals which act as intermediaries at the synaptic gap (Delcomyn, 1998). Many behavioral disorders have a neurochemical basis, oftentimes associated with abnormal neurotransmitter activity. These abnormalities are thought to stem from interactions between genetics and the environment. One of these disorders is Parkinson's Disease, a progressive neurodegenerative disease which is characterized by a deficit in the neurotransmitter dopamine (NHGRI, 1998). Parkinson's Disease affects more than a million Americans a year and is distributed equally geographically, in both men and women, and between socio-economic classes (PD Web, 1998). Although the probability of developing the disease is somewhat equal in all populations, recent studies have shown that African-Americans and Asians are less likely to exhibit Parkinson's symptoms than those of European descent (PD Web, 1998). It was first formally identified by British physician James Parkinson in 1817 as "The Shaking Palsy", however, it is thought that the disease has been around for thousands of years. Described as early as 5000 B.C. in the Indian Ayurvedic medicinal tradition and in the Nei Jing, the first Chinese medical text 2500 years ago, Parkinson's disease has been a constant cha... ...ces Consulted: 1)Awakenings. 1998. Parkinson's Disease, Treatment Options. http://www.parkinsondisease.com/ 2)Cosgrove, G.R. 1998. Neurosurgery Web Page. Practical Information Regarding Stereotactic Pallidotomy for Parkinson's Disease. http://www.neurosurgery.mgh.harvard.edu/pd-pract.html 3)Delcomyn, F. 1998. Foundations of Neurobiology. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 4)Grobstein, P. 1998. Neurobiology and Behavior Lectures, Bryn Mawr College. 5)National Human Genome Research Institute. 1998. Parkinson's Disease- Research News. http://www.genome.gov/DIR/LGDR/PARK2/background_info.html 6)National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. NINDS Hope Through Research. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/healinfo/disorder/parkinso/pdhtr.htm 7)PD Web: Parkinson's Disease Website. 1998. http://www.pdweb.mgh.harvard.edu/IntroPD/Intro.html

Case 6-1 Browning Manufacturing

Michellee Marie B. Chavez 2004-39460 BM 220 – Management Accounting 1) BROWNING MANUFACTURING COMPANY T-Accounts Cash Accounts Receivable Notes Payable 2,604,000. 00 144,000. 00 2,562,000. 00 49,200. 00 288,840. 00 118,440. 00 78,000. 00 311,760. 00 19,200. 00 264,000. 00 264,000. 00 492,000. 00 2,604,000. 00 552,840. 00 198,000. 00 2,873,760. 00 2,672,400. 00 49,200. 00 201,360. 00 Interest Expense 135,600. 00 38,400. 00 522,000. 00 Finished Goods 38,400. 00 38,400. 00 257,040. 00 1,806,624. 00 788,400. 00 1,901,952. 00 Indirect Manufacturing Labor 9,000. 00 2,158,992. 00 1,806,624. 0 198,000. 00 36,000. 00 352,368. 00 198,000. 00 52,200. 00 2,986,440. 00 2,542,800. 00 Manufacturing plant and equipment Direct Manufacturing Labor 443,640. 00 2,678,400. 00 492,000. 00 144,000. 00 492,000. 00 Prepaid taxes and insurances 2,822,400. 00 66,720. 00 52,800. 00 Materials 78,000. 00 Accounts Payable 110,520. 00 811,000. 00 144,720. 00 52,800. 00 788,400. 00 825,000. 00 825,000. 00 91, 920. 00 66,000. 00 935,520. 00 811,000. 00 185,760. 00 124,520. 00 788,400. 00 1,076,760. 00 Income Taxes Payable 288,360. 00 Work in Process 9,000. 00 9,000. 00 172,200. 00 1,901,952. 00 5,800. 0 Selling and Administrative Expense 811,000. 00 9,000. 00 14,800. 00 522,000. 00 1,129,200. 00 5,800. 00 522,000. 00 2,112,400. 00 1,901,952. 00 210,448. 00 Supplies Depreciation :: 17,280. 00 61,200. 00 140,400. 00 492,000. 00 66,000. 00 907,200. 00 198,000. 00 83,280. 00 61,200. 00 1,047,600. 00 49,200. 00 22,080. 00 135,600. 00 52,800. 00 Capital Stock Income Tax Expense 61,200. 00 1,512,000. 00 58,000. 00 140,400. 00 1,512,000. 00 58,000. 00 1,129,200. 00 Sales Cost of Goods Sold Power, Heat and Light 2,562,000. 00 1,806,624. 00 135,600. 00 2,562,000. 00 1,806,624. 00 135,600. 00 Sales Returns and Allowances Sales Discounts Social Security Taxes 19,200. 00 49,200. 00 49,200. 00 19,200. 00 49,200. 00 49,200. 00 Retained Earnings 829,560. 00 36,000. 00 68,576. 00 36,000. 00 898,136. 00 862,136. 00 Statement of Retained Earnings Retained earnings, 12/31/09 $829,560. 00 Add net income 68,576. 00 898,136. 00 Less dividends 36,000. 00 Retained earnings, 12/31/10 $862,136. 00 BROWNING MANUFACTURING COMPANY Projected 2010 Statement of Cost of Goods Sold Finished Goods Inventory, 1/1/10 $257,040. 00 Work in process inventory, 1/1/10 $172,200. 00 Materials used 811,000. 00 Plus: Factory expenses Direct manufacturing labor 492,000. 00 Factory Overhead: Indirect manufacturing labor $198,000. 00 Power, heat and light 135,600. 00 Depreciation of plant 140,400. 00 Social security taxes 49,200. 00 Taxes and insurance, factory 52,800. 00 Supplies 61,200. 00 637,200. 00 2,112,400. 00 Less: Work in process inventory, 12/31/10 210,448. 00 Cost of goods manufactured 1,901,952. 00 2,158,992. 00 Less: Finished goods inventory, 12/31/10 352,368. 00 Cost of goods sold $1,806,624. 00 2) BROWNING MANUFACTURING COMPANY Projected 2010 Income Statement Sales 2,562,000. 00 Less: Sales returns and allowances 19,200. 00 Sales discounts allowed 49,200. 00 68,400. 00 Net Sales 2,493,600. 00 Less: Cost of Goods Sold 1,806,624. 00 Gross margin 686,976. 00 Less: Selling and administrative expense 522,000. 00 Operating Income 164,976. 00 Less: Interest Expense 38,400. 00 Income before federal and state income tax 126,576. 00 Less: Estimated income tax expense 58,000. 00 Net Income 68,576. 00 BROWNING MANUFACTURING COMPANY Projected 2010 Balance Sheet Assets Current Assets: Cash and marketable securities $443,640. 00 Accounts receivable (net of allowance for doubtful accounts) 201,360. 00 Inventories: Materials $124,520. 00 Work in process 210,448. 00 Finished goods 352,368. 00 Supplies 22,080. 00 709,416. 00 Prepaid taxes and insurance 91,920. 00 Total current assets 1,446,336. 00 Other Assets: Manufacturing plant at cost 2,822,400. 00 Less: Accumulated depreciation 1,047,600. 00 1,774,800. 00 Total Assets $3,221,136. 00 Liabilities and Shareholders' Equity Current liabilities: Accounts Payable $288,360. 00 Notes Payable 552,840. 00 Income Taxes payable 5,800. 00 Total current liabilities $847,000. 00 Shareholders' equity: Capital stock 1,512,000. 00 Retained earnings 862,136. 00 Total Liabilities and Shareholders' Equity $3,221,136. 00 Comparative Statement of Cost of Goods Sold, Projected 2010 vs. 2009 20092010% change Finished Goods Inventory, 1/1/10 218,820. 00 257,040. 00 17. 47% Work in process inventory, 1/1/10 137,760. 00 172,200. 00 25. 00% Materials used 663,120. 00 811,000. 00 22. 30% Direct manufacturing labor 419,040. 00 492,000. 00 17. 41% Indirect manufacturing labor 170,640. 00 198,000. 00 16. 03% Power, heat and light 116,760. 00 135,600. 00 16. 14% Depreciation of plant 126,600. 00 140,400. 00 10. 90% Social security taxes 42,120. 00 49,200. 00 16. 81% Taxes and insurance, factory 46,320. 00 52,800. 00 13. 99% Supplies 56,880. 00 61,200. 00 7. 9% Work in process inventory, 12/31/10 172,200. 00 210,448. 00 22. 21% Finished goods inventory, 12/31/10 257,040. 00 352,368. 00 37. 09% Comparative Income Statement, Projected 2010 vs. 2009 2009 2010 % change Sales 2,295,600. 00 2,562,000. 00 11. 60% Sales returns and allowances 17,640. 00 19,200. 00 8. 84% Sales discounts allowed 43,920. 00 49,200. 00 12. 02% Cost of Goods Sold 1,568,280. 00 1,806,624. 00 15. 20% Selling and administrative expense 437,160. 00 522,000. 00 19. 41% Interest Expense 34,080. 00 38,400. 00 12. 68% Estimated income tax expense 89,520. 00 58,000. 00 -35. 21% Net Income 105,000. 00 68,576. 0 -34. 69% Comparative Balance Sheet, Projected 2010 vs. 2009 2009 2010 % change Cash and marketable securities 118,440. 00 443,640. 00 274. 57% Accounts receivable 311,760. 00 201,360. 00 -35. 41% Materials 110,520. 00 124,520. 00 12. 67% Work in process 172,200. 00 210,448. 00 22. 21% Finished goods 257,040. 00 352,368. 00 37. 09% Supplies 17,280. 00 22,080. 00 27. 78% Prepaid taxes and insurance 66,720. 00 91,920. 00 37. 77% Manufacturing plant at cost 2,678,400. 00 2,822,400. 00 5. 38% Accumulated depreciation 907,200. 00 1,047,600. 00 15. 48% Accounts Payable 185,760. 00 288,360. 00 55. 23% Notes Payable 288,840. 0 552,840. 00 91. 40% Income Taxes payable 9,000. 00 5,800. 00 -35. 56% Capital stock 1,512,000. 00 1,512,0 00. 00 0. 00% Retained earnings 829,560. 00 862,136. 00 3. 93% The comparison shows that in 2010, it is projected that there will be a significant increase by 274. 57% in the company’s cash and marketable securities. It can also be noted that accounts receivables for 2010 is expected to go down by 35. 41%, meaning the company will have more and faster collections of receivables, thus, increase in cash can be expected. On the other hand, notes payable and accounts payable is projected to increase by 91. 40% and 55. 3% respectively, which indicates that the company will not be able to pay its financial obligations in due time. Their credit standing as a company will worsen, because the company’s expenses will be higher in 2010. They may have faster collections of receivables, however, payables and expenses increases, resulting to the inability of the company to become liquid. Aside from this, inventory turnover is expected to be low, meaning; the company will not be able to utilize its resources efficiently. It can also be attributed to the slight increase in sales which shows that the company is having a hard time disposing / using its resources. Due to these projections, net income is also expected to decrease in 2010. 3) The company will fail to achieve its notes payable repayment goal of a year-end cash balance of $150,000. 00 after paying off at least $350,000. 00 of the notes payable, because after repaying $350,000, year-end cash balance will decrease to $93,640, which is short of its $150,000 year-end cash balance. In order to achieve its minimum objective, the company should be able to increase its sales, and lessen the expenses as well as the payables. ) Management’s inventory turnover goal will not be achieved in 2010. Inventory turnover can be computed as: Cost of Goods Sold / Average Inventory 20091,568,280. 00/ [(218,820. 00+257,040. 00)/2] = 6. 59 20101,806,624. 00/ [(257,040. 00+352,368. 00)/2] = 5. 93 As shown in the above computation, inventory turnover in 2010 is lower than that of 2009. In the budget, inventory turnover goal is not indicated to be achieved. The company should analyze its market and d emand of the people in order to evaluate how many of the goods should be prepared and ordered by them. They should be aware of the average number of products that they should have and it will be determined based on the demand. They should also strategize by having effective marketing and selling techniques. 5) The budget shows that the company will have a poor credit trade standing due to its higher payables. This shows that the company is not able to pay its obligations in time, primarily because of its inability to monitor and control their expenses. Eventually, the company will have a hard time borrowing if there will have continuous past dues, thus, operations might soon be affected and eventually will not be sustained.

Who’s to Blame?

Who’s to Blame? The world is full of everyday crimes carried on by criminals who should face the consequences of their actions, no matter what. The people of Rome are debating over who should be blamed for Julius Caesar’s assassination. The majority of the people believe the conspirators are responsible for Caesar’s death. This is a logical accusation for they are the ones that killed him, but the ones who should really be blamed and punished are Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. These two vile men led the conspirators in the plan to assassinate Caesar. Cassius and Brutus were the ones who carried out the actual assassination.Caesar’s death was unacceptable in every way. These men, along with the conspirators, stabbed Caesar thirty-three times. Thirty-three! Was that really necessary? They had no authority, no right to kill him, yet they still did. They did what they thought was the right thing to do, not what the people of Rome thought was right. These men killed him because they thought it was the best for Rome. As we all know, death should not be used to solve personal problems. These men had personal problems because they feared to be under Caesar’s rule, so they decided to get rid of him instead.They thought Caesar didn’t deserve to be crowned because according to them he was a â€Å"coward† that pleaded for help because he couldn’t do heroic things on his own. Cassius once compared Caesar to a sick girl crying for water (I, ii, 118- 131). This was not the way to go, yet they did and they made themselves and the people believe it was acceptable. Cassius and Brutus should face the consequences because committing crime under the law is highly unacceptable. In a crime, the leaders are responsible for the outcomes and punishment. In Caesar’s death, the leaders were Cassius and Brutus.Cassius was mostly responsible for persuading the men to join his plan. It was mainly his idea to get rid of Caesar. Cassius thought he was superior to Caesar and thus, thought it was a good idea to get rid of him. He saw it as being tolerable to kill Caesar just because he wasn’t good enough to be king. It probably never crossed his mind how unjust and unreasonable this act was. No one has the right to murder someone else no matter how the person is. Everyone is unique, and we all have our flaws, but this doesn’t give others the right to kill us.Brutus was then persuaded by Cassius and the men to join their conspiracy. He frankly and honestly believed that the best for Rome was to get rid of Caesar by killing him. Cassius and Brutus both made a huge mistake by believing it was fair and righteous to assassinate Caesar. Now, both of them should face the consequences of their mistakes like the responsible and â€Å"honorable† men they are. When Brutus gave his speech at Caesar’s funeral, he had the nerve to call himself a man of honor (III, ii, 14-16). Cassius and Brutus tried to cover up what had happened by lying to the people.They told them they had to kill him for everyone’s own good. The people were already replacing Caesar with Brutus because they thought what Brutus said was true and acceptable. They began to chant things like â€Å"Let him be Caesar! † and â€Å"Caesar’s better parts should be crowned in Brutus† (III, ii, 49-52). Even after what he had just done, Brutus was still willing to receive the crown. How can someone possibly live with the idea of killing a friend you once loved, and then taking his place? If it weren’t for Cassius and Brutus, Caesar would have never died that way.There were people who were unhappy with the idea of Caesar being crowned, but they never thought of killing him. Cassius and Brutus actually went to the extreme of killing him just because they didn’t like the idea of Caesar telling them what to do. Everyone deserves a chance in life, and they should have given Caes ar a chance to rule Rome. If the people were unhappy with the way he ruled, then it would be up to them to overthrow him and demand for a new leader. It wasn’t Cassius and Brutus’s decision to think for the people and decide for them.I have made my point and I honestly believe Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus are culpable for Julius Caesar’s death. If anyone should be punished, it ought to be them. They betrayed Rome, leaving the people in turmoil and fury. They took away the life of guiltless, reasonable man who would have done a great leader. It was not the adequate thing to do, even if they thought they benefited from it. How can someone kill a person to benefit themselves? There is no right to kill, therefore these men are to blame for Caesar’s death and they should face the consequences.

The Effects Of Fresh Garlic Extract On Acetaminophen Essays

The Effects Of Fresh Garlic Extract On Acetaminophen Essays The Effects Of Fresh Garlic Extract On Acetaminophen Essay The Effects Of Fresh Garlic Extract On Acetaminophen Essay Introduction Oxidative emphasis and lipid peroxidation play cardinal functions in the pathogenesis and patterned advance of several upsets. Cancer, ageing, coronary artery disease, and inflammatory procedures have all been linked to the coevals of reactive O species and toxic metabolites of lipid peroxidation reactions. 1, 2, 3 In many theoretical accounts, depletion of liver glutathione shops and other antioxidant molecules constitute an of import mechanism for the initiation of oxidative emphasis and the attendant harm to biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, and the activation of atomic written text factors that may be of import in the coevals of proinflammatory cytokines. Several anti-oxidants have been used in the intervention of oxidative stress-mediated diseases, including vitamins ( C and E ) , carotenoids, and minerals such as Se. 9, 10, 11,12 Besides, ethnomedical patterns have relied on the usage of works merchandises which are now known to incorporate antioxidant secondary metabolites.13 Garlic and garlic merchandises have been employed in medical pattern since antiquity. Assorted pharmacological surveies have besides reported on the benefits of its infusions and merchandises on critical physiological maps including their antioxidant, 14 cardioprotective, 15 hepatoprotective, 16 anticancer 17 and anti-inflammatory effects. 18 However, most of these surveies focused on the usage of aged garlic infusion ( AGE ) or other commercial merchandises. Here we report on the anti-oxidant and anti-lipid peroxidative belongingss of fresh ethanolic infusion of local Ugandan cultivars of Allium sativum in mice theoretical accounts of Datril induced lipid per oxidation and oxidative emphasis. We hypothesize that regular ingestion of fresh Allium sativum could forestall oxidative emphasis and protect against diseases associated with oxidative emphasis and lipid peroxidation reactions. MATERIALS AND METHODS 1. Collection, Identification, and Processing of Garlic Bulbs. Bulbs of a local assortment of garlic ( Allium sativum L. ) were obtained from Ishaka Town in Western Uganda, and identified by a qualified taxonomer. Cold extraction of the Allium sativum was carried out at room temperature ( 18-22 O C ) as follows: Fresh Allium sativum bulbs were land to a all right paste utilizing a mechanical bomber and 50 g of the paste was put in a 250 milliliter conelike flask and covered with 100 milliliters of 80 % ethyl alcohol, stoppered with cotton wool, and allowed to stand in the dark at room temperature for 48 hours. The ethanolic infusion was filtered off with a Whatman no. paper into pre-weighed evaporating dishes, while the residue in the flask was washed with a farther 100 milliliter of 80 % ethyl alcohol and added to the infusions in the evaporating dishes. The filtrates were so evaporated to a syrupy residue utilizing a rotary extractor at 40 O C. The dishes were so weighed once more on a ternary beam balance and the per centum output was calcula ted as follows: Weight of extract = weight of vaporizing dish after vaporization weight of dish before add-on of infusion ; Percentage output = entire weight of extract ? weight of paste used ( 50 g ) A- 100. The infusions were pooled together into an airtight container and stored refrigerated ( at -4 oC ) until required for usage. For usage, a part of the infusion was weighed and dissolved in normal saline solution. Fresh readyings were made on each twenty-four hours of the experiment. The resulting solutions were injected intraperitonially into the mice. 2. Lab Animals Swiss mice 6-8 hebdomads old weighing 18-32 g were obtained from the Pharmacology Department of the Mbarara University of Science and Technology in Uganda. They were maintained and habituated in plastic coops in the carnal house of the School of Health Sciences, Kampala International University, Western Campus for one hebdomad, and so after used for the surveies. The mice had free entree to H2O and were fed standard gnawer pellets ( purchased from a local commercial provider ) ad libitum. Addiction conditions were 12 hour dark/light rhythms, and mean environmental temperature of 20 o C. 3. Acute Toxicity Test and Determination of LD50 The LD50 of the infusion was determined in the mice by the process described by Bernas et Al. ( 2004 ) .19 The assurance interval of the LD50 was estimated by the Litchfield Wilcoxon method utilizing a computing machine software.20 4. Experimental Design Thirty Swiss mice of both sexes were used for the experimental survey. The animate beings were grouped indiscriminately into 6 groups of 5 each and administered with the drugs/extracts as follows: Group I received physiological saline i.p. merely ; group II received acetaminophen 250 mg/kg i.p. individual dosage merely ; group III was given garlic infusion 250 mg/kg for 5 yearss before a individual i.p. dosage of acetaminophen 250 mg/kg ; group IV received 500 mg/kg garlic infusion for 5 yearss before 250 mg/kg Datril ; group V were given 750 mg/kg garlic infusion for 5 yearss before 250 mg/kg Datril ; group VI received 25 mg/kg silymarin for 5 yearss before a individual i.p dosage of acetaminophen 250 mg/kg. The infusion was administered as a individual one time day-to-day dosages, while Datril was administered after 12 hours fast. 5. Sample Collection The mice were sacrificed under quintessence anesthesia, and their livers were obtained from the mice washed with ice cold normal saline, followed by 0.15 M Tris-buffer ( pH 7.4 ) , blotted and weighed. The liver was so homogenized in 0.15 M Tris buffer to a concentration of 10 g per 100ml of homogenate and used for TBARS, glutathione, catalase, and SOD checks. 6. Biochemical Assays Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances ( TBARS ) in the liver homogenates were estimated by the method of Ohkawa et al 21 as a step of lipid peroxidation reactions. Catalase activities in the homogenates were estimated by the method of Johansson and Borg, 22 ( which depended on the reaction between methyl alcohol and catalase in the presence of H peroxide ) with kits obtained from Calbiochem USA. Superoxide dismutase check was estimated by the method of Kakkar et Al, 23 utilizing kits obtained from Calbiochem. The NWLSS GSH spectrophotometric assay kit was used for the appraisal of glutathione in the homogenates ( Northwest Life Sciences Specialties LLC, USA ) . In this method, 5-5 dithiobis ( 2-Nitrobenzoic acid ) DTNB, reacts with glutathione to organize 5-thionitrobenzoic acid ( TNB ) which has optimum soaking up at a wavelength of 412 nanometers. The maker s protocol was purely followed. 7. Datas Analysis Datas were presented as average AÂ ± criterion mistake of the mean. Statistical analysis was by the one manner analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) utilizing the SPSS version 10 package, and a P value lt ; 0.05 was considered important. Consequence Administration of toxic doses of Datril produced pronounced depletion of the liver glutathione shops and the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase, and catalase, and important lift of lipid peroxidation merchandises estimated as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances ( TBARS ) . Liver glutathione degree in group II was significantly lower than in the negative control ( p lt ; 0.005 ) as are SOD ( P lt ; 0.001 ) and catalase ( p lt ; 0.05 ) . The liver TBARS degree in group II was significantly higher than in group I ( P lt ; 0.005 ) . The disposal of fresh Allium sativa infusion and silymarin protected against these alterations in a dose dependent mode and brought the values to degrees comparable to those of the negative controls ( P gt ; 0.01 ) as shown in table 1 and in figure 1. Table 1:Liver TBARS, GSH, SOD, and CAT of mice in the six groups Group Treatment TBARS ( mM/Kg ) GSH ( ug/mg protein ) Turf ( U/g liver ) CAT ( U/g liver ) I. NEG CONTROL 0.5 Master of Library Science Normal saline i.p. 11.5 Â ± 2.5 48Â ± 4.6 85Â ±6.8 85Â ±4.4 II. POS CONTROL 250 mg/Kg APAP i.p. 26.2 Â ± 1.8 P lt ; 0.005 12Â ±2.4 P lt ; 0.001 14Â ±3.6 P lt ; 0.001 50Â ± 3.9 P lt ; 0.05 III. 250 mg/Kg APAP + 250 mg/Kg garlic infusion 20 Â ±1.2 P lt ; 0.01 27Â ±4.1 P lt ; 0.01 californium. group I P lt ; 0.005 californium. group II 38Â ±2.1 P lt ; 0.001 californium. group I P lt ; 0.005 californium. group II 65Â ± 2.0 P lt ; 0.01 californium. group I P lt ; 0.05 californium. group II Four 250mg/Kg APAP + 500 mg/Kg garlic infusion 15.1 Â ±0.8 P gt ; 0.05 californium. group I ; p lt ; 0.01 californium. group II 32Â ±3.1 P lt ; 0.05 californium. group I P lt ; 0.001 californium. group II 44Â ±1.8 P lt ; 0.01 californium. group I P lt ; 0.0001 californium. group II 74Â ± 1.8 P lt ; 0.05 californium. group I P lt ; 0.005 californium. group II Volt 250 mg/kg APAP + 750 mg/Kg garlic infusion 12.2 Â ± 0.6 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.001 californium. group II 38Â ±2.8 P lt ; 0.05 californium. group I P lt ; 0.001 californium. group II 62Â ±2.5 P lt ; 0.05 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.001 californium. group II 82Â ± 2.4 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.01 californium. group II Six 250 mg/Kg APAP + 25 mg/Kg silymarin 10.8 Â ±0.8 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.005 californium. group II 45Â ±2.9 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.0001 californium. group II 76Â ±4.8 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.005 californium. group II 78Â ±2.5 P gt ; 0.1 californium. group I ; P lt ; 0.000 californium. group II Discussion Natural antioxidants play important functions in the bar and intervention of many organic and inflammatory diseases associated with oxidative stress.24 Polyphenols and flavonoids that are present in plant-derived merchandises are widely reported to exercise important influences on the remotion of reactive O and N species and have been utile in such diseases as diabetes mellitus and artherosclerosis.25 This survey demonstrated that fresh Allium sativa infusion exerted important protection against oxidative emphasis and lipid peroxidation induced by Datril overdose. It besides showed that fresh Allium sativa preserved liver GSH, and up-regulated superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in the liver. These observations are consistent with the ascertained effects of infusions from other workss in continuing liver GSH 26, and more so agrees with the study of Sabaya and others 27 in the relation to the action of Allium sativa infusion on valproic acid induced hepatotoxicity. In this re gard, Allium sativa mimics the activities of cysteine prodrugs such as N-acetyl cysteine ( NAC ) and S-adenosyl methionine ( SAM ) , which are known to continue liver GSH degrees in Datril hepatotoxicity 28, 29. It is besides possible that the infusion prevented GSH depletion by forestalling NAPQI formation in Datril overdose. The mechanism here could be suppression of enzymes of stage I metabolism, notably CYP2E1 and CYP3A, which are the primary enzymes responsible for acetaminophen biotransformation into NAPQI. Greenbaltt et al30 have shown that certain H2O soluble components of aged Allium sativum can suppress CYP3A in normal human liver microsomes. It has been suggested that drugs which can cut down cytochrome P450 mediated NAPQI formation such as Co chloride, Tagamet, and piperonyl butoxide could protect the liver against acetaminophen hepatotoxicity 31, 32. Several studies have besides shown that isothiocyanate and allyl sulphide compounds of Allium sativa inhibited cytochrome P450 enzymes such as CYP2E1 that act in stage I metamorphosis of acetaminophen 33, 34 Besides, several other surveies have reported that Allium sativa and Allium cepa ( onion ) organic sulfides are capable of hei ghtening glutathione S transferase activity in the liver,35 and isothiocyanate is a really powerful inducer of stage II metabolizing enzymes such as quinone reductase and glutathione -S transferase.36, 37 Allium sativa may besides speed up NAPQI elimination by supplying substrates that are required for its junction. Such substrates may include thiol ( organosulphure ) compounds, aminic acids, and sulphate ions. It may besides accomplish this by increasing NAPQI binding to glucuronic acid.38 Investigation of these possibilities requires surveies of the pharmacokinetics of NAPQI in animate beings having Allium sativa infusion, and the effects of Allium sativa infusion on cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for NAPQI metamorphosis. GSH saving could ensue from the supply of substrates for GSH biogenesis by the Allium sativa infusion. Allium sativa is known to incorporate organic sulfides such as S-allyl cysteine ( SAC ) and S-allyl mercaptocysteine ( SAMC ) which could be utilized for GSH biogenesis ( 221,222 ) . Allium sativa infusion besides contains dially sulphide ( DAS ) and diallyl disulphide ( DADS, known to hold strong cut downing belongingss ) , and allixin, antioxidant minerals ( e.g. Se ) , and fructosyl amino acids such as fructosyl glutamic acid and fructosyl arginine.39, 40 Administration of fresh Ugandan Allium sativum infusion prevented lipid peroxidation and depletion of liver glutathione shops and antioxidant enzymes in mice. Regular ingestion of Ugandan Allium sativum would therefore protect the organic structure against the toxic effects of oxidative emphasis and protect from assorted diseases which are known to be associated with oxidative emphasis. Mentions Waris G, Ahson H. Reactive O species: function in the development of malignant neoplastic disease and assorted chronic conditions. J Carcinog 2006 ; 4:14. Dugan LL, Quick KL. Reactive O species and aging: Evolving inquiries. Sci Aging Knowl Environ 2005 ; 2005 ( 26 ) :20. Prasad K, Kalra J. Oxygen free groups and hypercholesterolaemic coronary artery disease: consequence of vitamine E. Am Heart J 1993 ; 125 ( 4 ) :958-73. Battino M, Bullon P, Wilson M, Newman H. Oxidative hurt and inflammatory periodontic diseases: The challenge of anti-oxidants to free groups and reactive O species. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 1999 ; 10 ( 4 ) :458-576. Berlett BS, Stadtman ER. Protein oxidization in aging, disease and oxidative emphasis. J Biol Chem 1997 ; 272:20313-20316. Henle ES, Linn S. Formation, bar and fix of DNA harm by iron/hydrogen peroxide. J Biol Chem 1997 ; 272:19095-19098 Jacobson MD. Reactive O species and programmed cell decease. Swerve In Biochemical Sciences ( TIBS ) 1996 ; 21:83-86. Morimoto RI. Cells in emphasis: transcriptional activation of heat daze cistrons. Science 1993 ; 259:1409-141. Braughler JM, Pregenzer JF. The fresh 21-aminosteroid inhibitors of lipid peroxidation: reactions with lipid peroxyl and phenoxy groups. Free Radic Biol Med 1989 ; 7:125-130. Nweke I, Ohaeri OC, Ezeala C. Effect Of Vitamin On Malondialdehyde And Glutathione Levels In Type 2 Diabetic Nigerians.The Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness.2009 Volume 7 Number 2. Paiva SA, Russell RM. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids as antioxidants. J Am Coll Nutr.1999 ; 18 ( 5 ) :426-33 Burk RF. Selenium, an antioxidant food. Nutr Clin Care.2002 ; 5 ( 2 ) :75-9 Wolfe KL, Kang X, He X, Dong M, Zhang Q, Liu RH. Cellular antioxidant activity of common fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry2008 ; 56 ( 18 ) :8418-842. Borek C. Antioxidant wellness effects of aged garlic infusion. Journal of Nutrition.2001 ; 131:1010S-1015S. Mukherjee S, Banerjee SK, Maulik M, Dinda AK, Talwa KK, Maulik SK. Protection against acute adriamycin-induced cardiotoxicity by Allium sativum: Function of endogenous antioxidants and suppression of TNF-a look BMC Pharmacol.2003 ; 3: 16. Ezeala CC, I. N. Nweke IN, Unekwe PC, El-Safty IA, Nwaegerue E. Fresh Garlic Extract Protects The Liver Against Acetaminophen-Induced Toxicity.The Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness.2009 Volume 7 Number 1 Green OC, Polydoris NG. Garlic, malignant neoplastic disease and bosom disease: Reappraisal and recommendations. Chicago, IL: GN Communications ; 1993. p. 21-41. Sohn DW, Han CH, Jung YS, Kim SI, Kim SW, Cho YH. Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobic effects of garlic and interactive consequence between Allium sativum and Cipro in a chronic bacterial prostatitis rat theoretical account. Int J Antimicrob Agents.2009 Apr 16. [ Epub in front of print ] . Available at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19375896 Bernas GC, Gonzales RE, Solevilla RC, Ysrael MC. Pharmacology-Toxicology. In: Guevara BQ, editor. A guide book to works showing: Phytochemical and biological. Santo Tomas Philippines: Research Centre for Natural Sciences, university of Santo Tomas ; 2004. P. 103-132. Litchfield JT, Wilcoxon F. A simplified method of measuring dose-effect experiments. J Pharm Exp Ther 1949 ; 96 ( 2 ) :99-113. Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K. Assay for lipid peroxides in animate being tissues by thiobarbituric acerb reaction. Anal Biochem 1957 ; 95:357-358. Johansson LH, Borg LAH. A spectrophotometric method for finding of catalase activity in little tissue samples. Anal Biochem 1988 ; 174:331-336. Kakkar P, Das B, Viswanathan PN. A modified spectrophotometric check of superoxide dismutase. Ind J Biochem Biophys 1984 ; 21:130-132. Barclay L, Lie D. Antioxidants cut down hurting, oxidative emphasis in chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2009 ; 136:149-159. Kamalakkannan N, Ponnalan SMP. Antihyperglycaemic and antioxidant effects of rutin, a polyphenolic flavonoid in streptozotocin-induced diabetic winster rats. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2006 ; 98 ( 1 ) :97-103 Jagatha B, Mythri RB, Vali S, Bharath MM. Curcumin intervention alleviates the effects of glutathione depletion in vitro: curative deductions for Parkinson s disease explained via in silico surveies. Free Rad Biol Med 2008 ; 44 ( 5 ) :907-17. Sabayan B, Foroughinia F, Chohedry A. A postulated function of garlic organosulfur compounds in bar of valproic acerb hepatotoxicity. Med Hypotheses 2007 ; 68 ( 3 ) :512-4. Corcoran GB, Wong BK. Role of glutathione in bar of acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity by N-acetyl-L-cysteine in vivo: surveies with N-acetyl-D-cysteine in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1986 ; 238 ( 1 ) :54-61. Smilkstein MJ, Knapp GL, Kulig KW, Rumack BH. Efficacy of unwritten N-Acetylcysteine in the intervention of acetominophen overdose: analysis of the national multi-center survey ( 1976 to 1985 ) . New Engl J Med 1988 ; 319:1557-1562. Greenbaltt DJ, Leigh-Pemberton RA, von Molthke LL. In vitro interactions of H2O soluble garlic constituents with human cytochrome P450. J Nutr 2006 ; 136:806S-809S. 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